What is Existentialism?
Existentialism is a philosophical movement that explores the meaning and purpose of existence, particularly focusing on human freedom and individuality, alongside the challenges of living authentically. At its core, existentialism posits that life has no inherent meaning, and that it is up to each individual to create their own sense of purpose. Existentialist thinkers argue that this freedom to define one’s self comes with immense responsibility, as each person must confront life’s uncertainties and chart a path independently of universal truths or established doctrines. This philosophy emerged in response to, and as a critique of, traditional perspectives on existence, morality, and the role of the individual within society.
Key Themes of Existentialism
Absurdity
One of existentialism’s central themes is the absurdity of life, stemming from the tension between humans’ desire for meaning and the universe’s apparent indifference. Albert Camus, a key existentialist thinker, explored the absurd in works like The Myth of Sisyphus, suggesting that individuals must embrace life’s absurdity and find personal meaning within it. Camus argued that, although life lacks inherent purpose, one can still live fully and with purpose despite this realisation, embracing the journey as its own reward.
Freedom and Responsibility
Freedom is a pivotal concept in existentialism. Thinkers such as Jean-Paul Sartre assert that, in a world without external guidelines, individuals are “condemned to be free,” bearing full responsibility for their choices and actions. Sartre explains in Being and Nothingness that this level of freedom implies an unavoidable weight of responsibility, as each choice shapes not only one’s character but also one’s values and reality. This commitment to responsibility forms the basis for existentialist ethics, emphasising the unique role each individual plays in constructing their world.
Authenticity
A key existentialist goal is to live “authentically,” meaning individuals should act in ways that are true to themselves rather than conforming to external pressures or expectations. Søren Kierkegaard introduced the idea of authentic living as a “leap of faith,” where one lives according to deeply held personal beliefs rather than societal norms. Authenticity is fundamental in existentialist thought, as acting in accordance with one’s inner values is seen as essential to a meaningful life, while living inauthentically, or in “bad faith,” is considered self-deception, as Sartre described.
Anxiety and Angst
Existentialist philosophy associates freedom and authenticity with feelings of anxiety or angst. Kierkegaard referred to this existential dread as the “dizziness of freedom,” describing it as the unease from recognising limitless choices and possibilities open to each individual. For Heidegger, angst represents an awareness of one’s existence, including the inevitable confrontation with mortality. These unsettling feelings are seen as gateways to self-understanding, encouraging individuals to confront their choices, face existential freedom, and live more meaningfully.
Alienation
Existentialist thinkers discuss alienation as a natural outcome of confronting life’s lack of inherent purpose, leading to a profound sense of isolation within an indifferent universe. This feeling is not only social but also metaphysical, as individuals feel estranged from themselves and from traditional structures of meaning. This sense of alienation is explored deeply by Camus, who argued that accepting absurdity and isolation leads to a more profound form of freedom.
Historical Origins of Existentialism
Existentialism has roots in the 19th century with philosophers such as Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche, who questioned the structures of traditional religion and morality. Kierkegaard, known as the “father of existentialism,” emphasised personal faith and individual responsibility over institutional religion. Nietzsche famously declared, “God is dead,” critiquing moral foundations and encouraging individuals to live as “Übermenschen” (Overmen), creating their own values and purpose. These early insights laid the foundation for existentialism, which flourished in the 20th century as a response to the changing social and political climates, particularly in post-World War II Europe, where Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir became prominent figures.
Major Existentialist Philosophers
Søren Kierkegaard
Kierkegaard, often called the founder of existentialist thought, focused on individual faith and personal responsibility. In works like Fear and Trembling and Either/Or, he explores the concept of a leap of faith and advocates for embracing life’s uncertainties to forge one’s own path. His works remain influential in existentialist theology.
Friedrich Nietzsche
Nietzsche, known for his ideas on will to power and the Übermensch, critiques traditional morality in works like Thus Spoke Zarathustra, challenging individuals to reject established values and create their own. His ideas continue to impact discussions on nihilism and personal responsibility in a secular world.
Jean-Paul Sartre
Jean-Paul Sartre’s work centres on freedom and bad faith, with his concept of radical freedom positing that individuals must face the discomfort of self-definition. His influence endures in contemporary moral philosophy and psychology, where ideas of freedom and authenticity are widely studied.
Simone de Beauvoir
Simone de Beauvoir expanded existentialist concepts to gender and oppression in her work The Second Sex, examining how society shapes and constrains individual freedom, particularly for women. Her insights into feminist existentialism continue to impact gender studies and social justice.
Martin Heidegger
Heidegger introduced concepts like Dasein (being-there), authenticity, and being-toward-death in Being and Time, emphasising the need to live authentically in the face of mortality. His contributions significantly shaped phenomenology and existentialism, especially concerning individual self-realisation.
Existentialism in Literature and Culture
Existentialism has left a profound mark on literature, theatre, and popular culture, inspiring works that delve into alienation, freedom, and self-definition. Writers like Fyodor Dostoevsky and Franz Kafka wove existential themes into their novels, notably in Notes from Underground and The Metamorphosis, where protagonists grapple with meaninglessness and estrangement. In theatre, Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot captures the absurdity of existence and the search for purpose, aligning closely with existentialist ideas on the individual’s role in a seemingly indifferent universe.